Osteoporosis and hypertension:
Osteoporosis often co-exists with hypertension. One of the only blood pressure medicines known to improve bone mineral density is hydrochlorothiazide (29). Hypertension and osteoporosis are often found together and how they are associated with calcium and/or vitamin D deficiency is yet to be explained.
Calcium and cancer:
Calcium, vitamin D, and the risk of cancer: Calcium together with vitamin D supplements have been linked with a decrease in the relative risk of various cancers in women excluding skin cancers. A population-based randomized 4-year study conducted in Nebraska enrolled 1179 women aged 55 years and older, with no known cancer. Participants were randomly assigned to 3 groups: 1) Placebo (calcium placebo plus vitamin D placebo, n=266); 2) calcium-only (1400 mg calcium citrate or 1500 mg calcium carbonate plus vitamin D placebo, n=416); and Calcium + D (1000 IU [25 mcg] vitamin D plus calcium [as above], n=403). Serum samples were analyzed for levels of 25(OH)D, vitamin D, at baseline and then yearly. Study results found 50 women developed non-skin cancer during the study: 13 in the first year, and 37 during the second to fourth years. The relative risk reduction (RRR) for the calcium + D group was 0.232 (confidence interval [CI], 0.09–0.60; P<.005), and the RRR for the calcium-only group was 0.587 (95% CI, 0.29–1.21; P=.147) compared with the placebo group. Increasing the dose of vitamin D from the current standard of 400–600 IU per day to 1000 IU per day may lower future risk of cancer in women older than age 55 who do not get adequate vitamin D from sun exposure or diet. The conclusion of the author was that an improvement of nutritional status with calcium and vitamin D significantly lowers cancer risk. (10)