The following research outlines several lifestyle and dietary factors which may assist in prevention of lung cancer. For those already diagnosed with lung cancer, this information may be used in attempt to prevent progression of the cancer or extend survival. DNA damage by carcinogens in tobacco is known to lead to lung cancer (1). Marijuana smoke also contains many carcinogens and should be avoided. Therefore it is essential to avoid smoking completely.
Physical Activity and Lung Cancer
Regarding physical activity and lung cancer, Alfano et al. completed the beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial, a lung cancer chemoprevention trial, which examined physical activity and lung cancer incidence and mortality among 7,045 (59% male) current and former smokers with a mean age of 63 years. Compared to non-active participants, an increase in physical activity resulted in a 14% decreased risk for all-site cancer among men including a 16% decrease in risk for lung cancer. In addition, women who were physically active had a 31% decreased risk of lung cancer mortality compared with women who were not physically active. (2)
Dietary Modifications and Lung Cancer
Beta Carotene and Lung Cancer
In reference to diet, the consumption of 5 or more daily servings of fruits and vegetables is recommended by “National Cancer Institute’s Five-A-Day for a Better Health program” and “Canada’s Food Guide for Healthy Eating.” High blood concentrations of beta-carotene and other carotenoids including plant pigments found in carrots, sweet potatoes, spinach, kale, collard greens, papaya, bell peppers, tomatoes, have been linked to a lower risk of cancer, especially lung, mouth, throat, and cervical cancers. A blood beta-carotene concentration less than 0.28 micromol/L has been linked with a higher risk of several cancers, while a concentration of more than 0.28 to 0.37 micromol/L have been associated with a reduced risk of several cancers in prospective blood concentration studies. Eating a variety of 5 fruits and vegetables per day provides the individual with about 5.2 to 6 mg/day of food based beta-carotene. This allows plasma carotenoid levels to rise above a range represented in studies which were associated with a lower risk of cancer and all-cause mortality compared to those with a lower food based carotenoid levels. (3)
According to Martini et al in the University of Minnesota Cancer Prevention Research Unit Feeding Studies, an intake of 5 mg per day of beta carotene was required to establish beta carotene levels to a plasma level of 0.37 umol/L. When food based beta carotene was consumed in amounts over 42 mg per day, levels increased to 0.83 umol/L. (4)
To see concentrations of beta-carotene in foods, please see: Nutritive Value of Foods, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Home and Garden Bulletin Number 72. This may be accessed at: https://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/12354500/Data/SR25/nutrlist/sr25w321.pdf and http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/HG72/hg72_2002.pdf
It is important to note that taking beta carotene in oral supplement form is advised against. One study, the Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial (CARET), was stopped early because it showed that beta-carotene/vitamin A takers who were heavy smokers, ex-smokers or asbestos workers were showing a 28% increased risk of lung cancer in smokers (versus placebo) and a 17% more likely chance of dying, mostly of lung cancer or heart disease. (5)
Vitamin D and Cancer
Regarding the intake of vitamin D, the range of vitamin D intake with the lowest mortality was a vitamin D concentration of 24 to 34 ng/ml (60 to 85 nMol/L), which approximately translated to a vitamin D dose of 2000 IU/d. In general, the biggest drop in overall death rates were seen when subjects went from being vitamin D deficient to reaching adequate levels. However, too much vitamin D translated into a gradual increase of mortality rate with cancer deaths rising significantly for the highest levels of vitamin D intake. The ideal vitamin D dose according to findings in this study is 2000 IU per day for adults. (7)
Vitamin C and Cancer
Loria and colleagues found an association between low blood ascorbate (vitamin C) levels and an increased risk of dying overall and from cancer, among men. No link between mortality and ascorbate levels were found among women. (8)
An analysis, was conducted on 19,496 men and women, ages 45 to 79, in the U.K. Death rates were significantly lower among those with higher blood ascorbic acid levels. Those with the highest ascorbic acid levels had half the risk of dying from all causes combined. Additionally, a 20 micromol/L increase in blood ascorbic acid concentration, the same as a 50 g per day increase in fruit and vegetable intake, was associated with about a 20% reduction in risk of all-cause mortality. (9)
To see concentrations of vitamin C in foods, please see: Nutritive Value of Foods, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Home and Garden Bulletin Number 72. May be accessed at: https://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/12354500/Data/SR25/nutrlist/sr25w401.pdf and http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/HG72/hg72_2002.pdf
Red Meat Consumption and Lung Cancer
Red meat consumption has been found to be associated with increased cancer risk of the lungs. Lamb was also associated with increased cancer risk. Processed meat was also linked to an increased risk of cancer of the lungs (10).
A literature review of 206 human studies and 22 animal studies by Steinmetz, K. A.et al showed that a high consumption of fruits and vegetables decreased the cancer risk of the lungs. The most protective foods against cancer included raw vegetables, followed by allium vegetables (onion, garlic), carrots, green vegetables, cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kale, cabbage), and tomatoes (11).
A review of epidemiologic studies found that the higher the consumption of brassica vegetables the lower the risk of lung cancer (12). A significant reduction in risk for lung cancer was seen with both fruit and vegetable consumption (13).
Increasing Brassica Vegetable Intake
How to sprout broccoli seeds:
Food grade seeds may be sprouted in a 1 quart sterilized Mason jar and screen that has been sterilized by placing upside down in boiling water for 5-10 minutes. Once the jar is cool, 4 tablespoons of seeds should be placed in the jar. The screen should be open enough to allow the water to freely flow out but the seeds to remain in the jar. The screen should be secured by the outside ring of the lid with the seeds open to air. Use fresh clean filtered water to soak the seeds for 4-8 hours in a dark location, then drain. Rinse the seeds with the filtered water by filling the jar with the water and then drain to rinse twice ever 12 hours. After the double rinse every 12 hours the jar should remain inverted inside a bowel at a 45 degree angle in the dark. After 48 hours, since placing the seeds in the jar, the should be placed in indirect light for the remainder of the sprouting time. If the jar is not rinsed for over 18 hours or left in direct sunlight, the sprouts may die and grow bacteria. In this case, the entire jar should be discarded. If left in direct light, the sprouts will die and will turn gray in which case they should also be discarded. The sprouts can be eaten day 4 through day 6 since seeds were placed in the jar. On the day 5, after rinsing thoroughly, the sprouts should be placed in the fridge open to air for 12-24 hours then a lid should be placed over loosely to allow some air exchange. They can be eaten over the course of a week. It is important to follow the procedure properly and make sure the supplier is providing food grade seeds, or the sprouts can make a person quite ill. There have been reports of the seeds being contaminated with E. coli from the supplier or by the person preparing the seeds. The sulforaphane in one sprout is equivalent to the entire amount in an entire broccoli plant. Take small amounts at first, and mix with salad or other foods, and increase the amount slowly as desired.
Beta-cryptoxanthin and lung cancer:
A cohort study on beta-cryptoxanthin was performed by Yaun, JM, et al in Shanghai, China on over 60,000 Chinese men. Researchers estimated the intake of the following nutrients: alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein/zeaxanthin, vitamins A, C, and E, and folate. Subjects with the lowest intake of beta-cryptoxanthin was compared with those with the highest intake. It was found that the highest intake of beta-cryptoxanthin was associated with the lowest risk of lung cancer, (95% confidence interval) average relative risk of 0.73, range (0.54-0.98) noted in all subjects and average relative risk of 0.63, range (0.41-0.99) in those subjects which were smoking. After the variable of smoking was adjusted within the study subjects, an approximately 15-40% reduction in risk of lung cancer was noted in the highest verses lowest intake of dietary beta-cryptoxanthin. (14)
References:
1.Wogan GN, Hecht SS, Felton JS, Conney AH, Loeb LA. Environmental and chemical carcinogenesis. Semin Cancer Biol. 2004 Dec;14(6):473-86. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15489140
2.Alfano CM, Klesges RC, Murray DM, Bowen DJ, McTiernan A, Vander Weg MW, Robinson LA, Cartmel B, Thornquist MD, Barnett M, Goodman GE, Omenn GS. Physical activity in relation to all-site and lung cancer incidence and mortality in current and former smokers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2004;13(12):2233-2241. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15598785
3.Dietary reference intakes for vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, and carotenoids : a report of the Panel on Dietary Antioxidants and Related Compounds, Subcommittees on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients and Interpretation and Uses of Dietary Reference Intakes, and the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Institute of Medicine (US) Panel on Dietary Antioxidants and Related Compounds. Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press, c2000. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog/100938980
4.Martini MC, Campbell DR, Gross MD, Grandits GA, Potter JD, Slavin JL. Plasma carotenoids as biomarkers of vegetable intake: the University of Minnesota Cancer Prevention Research Unit Feeding Studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1995 Jul-Aug;4(5):491-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/754980410
5.Goodman GE, et al. The Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial: incidence of lung cancer and cardiovascular disease mortality during 6-year follow-up after stopping beta-carotene and retinol supplements. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2004;96(23):1743-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15572756
6.Nutritive Value of Foods, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Home and Garden Bulletin Number 72. This may be accessed at: https://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/12354500/Data/SR25/nutrlist/sr25w321.pdf and http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/HG72/hg72_2002.pdf
7.Michaëlsson K, Baron JA, Snellman G, et al. Plasma vitamin D and mortality in older men: a community-based prospective cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010 Oct;92(4):841-8. http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/92/4/841.long
8.Loria CM, Klag MJ, Caulfield LE, Whelton PK. Vitamin C status and mortality in US adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 Jul;72(1):139-45. http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/72/1/139.abstract?ijkey=5b9197f8f0c3a6617746a9e4da79426faf94c17d&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha
9.Khaw KT, Bingham S, Welch A, Luben R, Wareham N, Oakes S, Day N. Relation between plasma ascorbic acid and mortality in men and women in EPIC-Norfolk prospective study: a prospective population study. European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Lancet. 2001 Mar 3;357(9257):657-63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11247548?dopt=Abstract
10.Aune D, et al. Meat consumption and cancer risk: a case-control study in Uruguay. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. (2009). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19640186
11.Steinmetz, K. A. & Potter, J. D. (1996) Vegetables, fruit, and cancer prevention: a review. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 96:1027-1039. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8841165
12.Verhoeven DT, Goldbohm RA, van Poppel G, Verhagen H, van den Brandt PA. Epidemiological studies on brassica vegetables and cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1996 Sep;5(9):733-48. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8877066
13.Riboli E, Norat T. Epidemiologic evidence of the protective effect of fruit and vegetables on cancer risk. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 Sep;78(3 Suppl):559S-569S. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12936950
14.1.Yuan JM, Stram DO, Arakawa K, Lee HP, Yu MC. Dietary cryptoxanthin and reduced risk of lung cancer: the Singapore Chinese Health Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2003 Sep;12(9):890-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17164369